Master of Environmental Assessment Professional Papers
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- Revisiting the Impacts of Bt-corn on Non-Target Lepidoptera: A Scoping Review(2024) Jenel RichardThis scoping review sought to verify the conclusions of Lang and Otto’s (2010) publication assessing the risk of Bt-corn on non-target lepidopteran species. Bt-corn has been an innovation in the agricultural sector in regard to increasing yield while minimizing pesticide application. If the EPA deemed Bt-corn harmful to unintended protected species, it would be subjected to planting restrictions, such as buffer zones, that safeguard habitats. In addition to replicating the literature review, the time period was increased to include contemporary research through December 2023 and search terms were added to include emerging technology. The sixteen laboratory studies used in Lang and Otto’s paper were successfully identified during the search process. Three additional published laboratory studies were identified by the search. One identified article was published prior to 2010, and the other two were published between 2010 and 2023. No additional field studies were identified during the expanded scoping review. The results from this scoping review support conclusions of the original paper that pollen from Bt- corn does not pose a significant risk to non-target lepidopteran species.
- An Analysis of Water Quality in Public Water Systems, Private Wells, Groundwater, and Surface Water in North Carolina(2024) Kayla TottenClean drinking water is essential for human life. The quality of publicly supplied drinking water is regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act with maximum contaminant levels established for over ninety contaminants; however, the quality of private well water is not regulated. In this study, the quality of publicly supplied water and private well water was compared for nine counties in North Carolina with a focus on lead, copper, arsenic, iron, and manganese. Additionally, the quality of surface water and groundwater was analyzed for the nine counties since they serve as sources for the drinking water. Water quality data were obtained from publicly available sources including the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Annual Drinking Water Quality Reports, and the United States Geological Survey Water Quality Portal. Upon analysis, private well water was found to have higher concentrations of lead, arsenic, iron, and manganese than publicly supplied water, thus highlighting the disparity between those relying on private well water and those with access to publicly supplied water. Private well water was found to have higher concentrations of lead than groundwater, indicating that lead likely enters the water from the corrosion of older plumbing systems that used metal pipes and plumbing. Copper also likely enters drinking water through the corrosion of older plumbing systems since private well water and publicly supplied water were found to have higher concentrations of copper than groundwater and surface water. Rural counties had higher concentrations of copper in publicly supplied water compared to urban counties, suggesting that the rural counties may have older plumbing systems. Publicly supplied water is filtered during drinking water treatment, likely removing arsenic, iron, and manganese. This was evidenced because the surface water, which publicly supplied water is sourced from, had higher concentrations of these contaminants compared to the publicly supplied water. Location played a role in the concentration of contaminants with high levels of arsenic found in counties known to have arsenic-containing rocks underground and counties in the Piedmont region having high concentrations of manganese. Overall, those relying on private wells are more likely to be exposed to drinking water contaminants than those with publicly supplied water, although it is important for all to have their water tested regularly to ensure it is safe and to help limit exposure to contaminants.
- Do Poultry CAFOs Contribute to Negative Human Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review(2024) Joanna Traynor PerryIntroduction: Concentrated food animal production (CAFO) facilities are a source of environmental and human health hazards. Despite the growing evidence that CAFOs present health and environmental risks to both farm workers and proximate communities, CAFO regulations and their enforcement have not adequately protected human health and the environment (Sciablabba, 2022). To our knowledge there have been no comprehensive literature reviews focusing on poultry CAFOs and human health outcomes since 2015. Previous literature reviews primarily focused on swine or livestock CAFOs with very little to no focus on poultry. Therefore, we reviewed the literature published between the years of 2015 and 2023 identifying health outcomes associated with working on or living near poultry CAFOs: respiratory outcomes, gastrointestinal outcomes and community or public health outcomes. Methods: We developed a list of search terms that covered synonyms for (i) concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO), (ii) poultry, and (iii) human health outcomes of interest and then searched: PubMed,Web of Science, CAB Direct, and Agricola databases for peer-reviewed articles between the years of 2015 and 2023. Results: We screened the titles/abstracts of 2007 articles; 23 studies were read in full text and 12 were identified as eligible and included in this review. In 9 out of 12 studies the authors found a negative impact on human health as a result of living near or working on a CAFO. The studies reviewed identified a correlation between poultry CAFO exposure and respiratory issues, odor annoyance, presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) E. coli in urine samples, and evidence of antibiotic absorption. Conclusions: Overall this literature review found that there is a correlation between working on or being in close proximity to a poultry CAFO and a negative health outcome. Further research examining the relationship between poultry production and human health effects on the workers and communities concentrated around these facilities is warranted.
- Effectiveness of the Neuse River Nutrient Management Strategy: A Case Study on the Influence of Land Use(2024) Elisabeth WebsterDue to its vital role in contributing to the ecosystem of the APES and as a recreational and water supply watershed, the quality of water running through the Neuse River is very important to the state of North Carolina. However, the Neuse River Basin has been plagued by poor water quality primarily caused by an influx of nutrients attributed to anthropogenic sources such as agricultural and stormwater runoff. Over saturation of nitrogen and phosphorus within the basin led to eutrophic conditions, ultimately causing algal blooms, increased turbidity, low dissolved oxygen, and fish mortality. Consequently, the Neuse River was first identified as an impaired water body per Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act in 1988. Management efforts have been in place since 1988. However, decades later the goals of the Neuse Management Strategy have not been met, and the Neuse River remains classified as nutrient sensitive waters with impaired status. This study aimed to evaluate potential sources of nutrient-enriched runoff within the basin by using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to identify areas of developed and agricultural land with the highest potential for runoff within two representative counties, Lenoir and Wake. Results indicated that agricultural cultivated cropland was thelargest land use category in the Neuse River basin, accounting for 838,686 acres or 21% of the entire basin. Within Lenoir County there were 8,394 acres of agricultural land with a high potential for agricultural runoff, 79,066 acres with moderate potential, and 15,245 acres with low potential. In comparison, Wake County had 785 acres of agricultural lands with high potential for runoff, 18,778 acres with moderate potential, and 4,676 acres with low potential for agricultural runoff. Agriculture-based Lenoir County contained 2,128 acres of land with high potential for stormwater runoff, 21,704 acres with moderate potential, and 4,723 acres with low potential. The more developed Wake County had 28,119 acres with high potential for stormwater runoff. This was followed by an additional 147,132 acres with moderate potential, and 59,537 acres with low potential for stormwater runoff. This study suggests that significant nonpoint sources of nutrient-polluted runoff still remain within the Neuse River Basin. Although a Nutrient Management Strategy exists for the Neuse River, it may not be adequately protective against nutrient inputs from nonpoint sources. If the current rules are not eliciting the desired water quality outcomes it is unlikely that the water quality will improve or even hold steady as the population, and corresponding urban development and agricultural operations, continues to grow . Regulatory authorities should consider additional management approaches, especially for nonpoint nutrient sources.
- Estimating Alveolar Ventilation for Use in Physiological-based Exposure Models(2023) Robertson, HaydenThe United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) utilizes the Air Pollutants Exposure (APEX) model to estimate exposure to criteria air pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), to inform the setting of air quality standards (e.g., US EPA, 2010). The data for estimating alveolar ventilation rates (𝑉 ̇𝐴) in this model used for modeling CO exposures and dose was last updated over 20 years ago and could benefit from additional information extracted from new studies as well as performing additional data analysis. Specifically, the existing constant value used in the equation to estimate 𝑉 ̇𝐴, 19.63, has been raised by public reviewers of the most recent CO human health risk and exposure assessment as potentially limited in its applicability, particularly at when simulated individuals are high breathing rates (US EPA, 2011). This new study was conducted to increase our knowledgebase of the physiological aspects of ventilation and to further develop an internal alveolar ventilation database that could be used to either support the existing quantitative linear relationship or, where possible, improve the algorithm. This evaluation also explored the relationship of how alveolar ventilation with might be affected by key demographic attributes such as body mass, age, and sex. Two approaches were explored to estimate 𝑉 ̇𝐴 and are linked to key respiratory variables already modeled by APEX. The first, used a direct relationship between 𝑉 ̇𝐴 and oxygen consumption rates (𝑉 ̇𝑂2). The second used the relationship of dead space to tidal volume (VD/VT) to 𝑉 ̇𝑂2 and expected to be used with total ventilation rate (𝑉 ̇𝐸) to indirectly estimate 𝑉 ̇𝐴. This study increased the amount of useful data within the internal database by over two-fold, albeit sample size limitations for important population groups remain an issue (e.g., adults > 35 years old). New data analyses using the updated database suggest a linear relationship between 𝑉 ̇𝐴 and 𝑉 ̇𝑂2 appears appropriate across all population groups and breathing rates, while differences in the VD/VT to 𝑉 ̇𝑂2 relationship across 3 population groups suggests adoption of this latter approach is less likely due to the sample size issues. It is hoped study results assist in the development of a newly refined algorithm to for estimating CO exposure and dose estimations, reduce uncertainties in exposure models that would use such an approach, and provide sound support to air quality regulations.
- Expanding the Conservation Reserve Program to Promote Habitat Conservation at Hazardous Waste Cleanup Sites: A Feasibility Study(2023) Hooper-Attig, BrookeRemediation of former hazardous waste sites generates a new opportunity for lands contaminated with regulated hazardous waste. Many sites across the United States are remediated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Corrective Action Program with a primary focus to eliminate human health and ecological risks associated with the improper handling, disposal, and/or treatment of hazardous waste and find a beneficial reuse for the site. The primary focus of this study examines the potential reuse of a remediated corrective action site through the United States Department of Agriculture’s Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). The study considered two outcomes, (1) converting a remediated corrective action site to pollinator habitat under the CRP framework would benefit both the site owner and surrounding ecosystem and (2) that the cost associated with pollinator habitat development would outweigh the financial incentives of the CRP lease. The study site is located in southern Missouri, with corrective action now in post-closure care; however, site use restrictions remain in place due to soil “hot spots” throughout the site. The site use restrictions have made resale of the site difficult for the current owner and limits redevelopment opportunities. This study examined converting selected acreage into a conservation resource under the framework established USDA CRP. CRP enrollment is currently limited to privately owned agricultural land, where landowners receive a payment incentive in the form of a lease payment to convert previously cropped land into non-cropped conservation land. Specifically, this study explored enrollment opportunity under the Continuous CRP for establishing pollinator and wildlife habitat. The feasibility of expanding the CRP to include corrective action sites is explored in the form of a financial analysis. The study found that the financial benefit to the current landowner is significant and there is potential to establish over 200-acres of new pollinator and wildlife habitat on a parcel of land that currently provides limited economic and environmental benefit.
- Estuarine Shoreline Stabilization Methods in Coastal North Carolina: a Case Study Analysis of Coastal Resiliency(2023) Karcher, Tyler J.Coastal North Carolina estuaries provide countless environmental and economic benefits to the state of North Carolina. These valuable ecosystems along the coast are very diverse in nature and are home to thousands of different species that attract much of the state’s tourism industry and provide an important resource to local economies. With recent pressures on these estuaries from increasing development and boat traffic in coastal communities, combined with more frequent and intense storm systems driven by climate change, a focus on coastal resiliency is at the forefront in our state. The push towards long term coastal resiliency planning in North Carolina has been fostered through partnerships and programs implemented by non- profit foundations, local, state, and federal governments, and other organizations, with the goal of protecting and enhancing the countless benefits that these estuaries provide. To better analyze the current methods and practices being implemented in our coastal communities as a foundation in North Carolina’s coastal resiliency efforts, pre- and post-storm observations from existing projects are evaluated and discussed. Evaluating the effectiveness of current coastal resiliency practices in North Carolina can provide an important role in future planning efforts for our coastal communities to reduce negative impacts from future storms.
- Roadmap to Resilience: Implementing Federal Nature-Based Solutions Recommendations for Climate Resilience at Coastal North Carolina State Parks(2023) Farrell, ChristineCoastal North Carolina is increasingly impacted by threats of climate change that are only going to intensify in the coming years. Sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, and increases in temperatures, floods, droughts, and intense storm events are imminent threats to coastal NC State Parks. Nature-based solutions (NbS) provide a way to work with nature to improve ecosystem and community resilience to a changing climate. To help combat the climate change crisis and find solutions to an impending problem, the Biden-Harris administration released the “Opportunities for Accelerating Nature-Based Solutions: A Roadmap for Climate Progress, Thriving Nature, Equity, and Prosperity” in November 2022. The purpose of the administration’s Roadmap is to promote the use of NbS projects in federal climate resilience projects across the country. This paper will utilize the Roadmap as a template to advocate for increasing the use of NbS in coastal NC State Parks to improve climate resilience, as well as emphasize the urgent need for a climate resilience plan specific to the State Park System. Specifically, increasing the use of living shorelines and green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) as NbS techniques will be emphasized. Understanding and planning for landscape-scale changes due to present and future climate change impacts is crucial to the conservation, recreation, and operations of State Parks.
- Building a More Resilient Raleigh, North Carolina: A site-suitability analysis to find locations to implement green infrastructure(2023) Powell, JakeRaleigh, NC has experienced substantial growth over the last ten years leading to more impervious features being part of the urban landscape. Additionally, the city continues to be impacted by climate change. Because of Raleigh’s population growth, urban development, and climate change issues more stress is put on the existing stormwater infrastructure. Green Infrastructure (GI) can be implemented to reduce the stress on the existing stormwater infrastructure by using various technologies and landscaping techniques. GI also provides social and economic benefits, so it is essential that GI is implemented equitably. An ArcGIS spatial analysis was conducted to find locations where GI is equitable and achieves the desired environmental impacts. To ensure the locations do not continue the misjustice of urban planning and benefit the environment, the Hoover and Hopton 2019 Framework was followed. Ultimately, this spatial analysis assists Raleigh’s efforts in creating an urban ecosystem that is more resilient to stormwater management issues in the future.
- Impact of Domestic Animal Husbandry Operations on Groundwater: A Systematic Review(2022-12) Meyer, Cameron
- Pharmaceutical Excipients as a Proxy for Measuring Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: A Case Study with Polyethylene Glycol(2022-12) Barkley, RachelBARKLEY, RACHEL AUSERMAN. Pharmaceutical Excipients as a Proxy for Measuring Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: A Case Study with Polyethylene Glycol (Under the direction of Dr. Tamara Pandolfo). Pharmaceutical waste presents a problem where industry’s production of pharmaceuticals and their waste are fast out-pacing the regulations around this waste. In the past, previous methods have framed the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) as the most important ingredient which must be assessed to determine environmental risk. Here, a proxy is investigated as a means of quantifying the waste which communities may detect in wastewater. Pharmaceutical excipients are much more prevalent across manufacturing and therefore would provide the early datasets needed to assess how widespread these APIs could be. The framework uses polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a case study for how to implement this framework.
- A GIS analysis of agricultural runoff potential in Wayne County, NC.(2022-12) Mason, CassidyMASON, CASSIDY RENA. A GIS analysis of agricultural runoff potential in Wayne County, NC. (Under the direction of Dr. Tamara Pandolfo). Wayne County, North Carolina is home to many row crop agriculture practices that rely on the Neuse River for fertile soils and water for irrigation. However, the water that flows off these agricultural areas from excess rainwater or irrigation can impact the quality of water flowing through the Neuse River. Agricultural runoff contains a variety of substances that can impact water health including pesticides, sediments, and excess nutrients. To determine areas where agricultural runoff has the most potential to impact the Neuse River water quality, a GIS analysis was conducted using a weighted sum calculation. An area with high potential for runoff was considered as such if the area was used for row crop agriculture, had a high slope percentage, and a fine soil texture. Wayne County consisted of 44.7% cultivated row crop land at the time the land classification was completed in 2016. The study area had an average slope of 1.42% with soils consisting of 46% loamy sand, 34% sandy loam, and 11% loam. This study concluded that only 2.6%, or 4219.8 acres, of row crop land in Wayne County, NC has a high potential to form agricultural runoff. Runoff management strategies are vital in preventing runoff legacy effects on water quality. Deep fertilizer placement and controlled-release fertilizers have been shown to reduce the amount of nutrient loading to water systems. Sediment transportation can be prevented and reduced by tillage strategies including conservation tillage, such as no-till and reduced tillage, and rotational tillage. These strategies reduce soil disturbances and cause less erosion and runoff of loose sediments. Water quality of the Neuse River must still be monitored even if runoff management strategies are implemented to ensure continued water health.
- Blood Lead Levels in Construction Workers Performing Lead Abatement(2022-12) Moran, PatrickMORAN, PATRICK. Blood Lead Levels in Construction Workers Performing Lead Abatement. (Under the direction of Dr. Jennifer Richmond-Bryant). Lead abatement is a common practice in the construction industry. However, the job task generates airborne particulate lead, creating a potential workplace hazard exposure for workers if not managed properly. This exposure can cause severe acute and chronic illnesses. Entry and exit blood lead levels (BLLs) are required for all abatement workers under medical surveillance in OSHA § 1910.1025 Appendix C. BLLs can be used as a measurement of a worker’s exposure. The change from entry to exit BLLs can be analyzed in different project settings, abatement methods, engineering controls, and job trades to help determine best practices in mitigating a worker’s exposure. The Sen et al. (2002), Sokas et al. (1997), Levin et al. (1998), and Reynolds et al. (1999) studies all used different abatement methods for different abatement projects. Sen et al. (2002) analyzed scaffolders who performed mobilization/ demobilization erecting scaffolds in and around the containment while abrasive blasting was being performed. Sokas et al. (1997) studied crews who performed demolition and burning lead abatement versus workers who never performed demolition and burning lead abatement. Levin et al. (1998) compared BLL for iron workers on a bridge rehabilitation project in New York between the years 1993 and 1994 performing needle gunning and pneumatic chipping. Reynolds et al. (1999) compared the changes of BLL in construction workers in Iowa and Illinois across several different job occupations of laborers, painters, welders, and ironworkers. The findings of all four articles discovered that scaffold workers who were not performing active abatement tasks, such as mobilization and demobilization, could still have elevated BLL when working with containments or working in close proximity without necessary PPE. These four studies have unique abatement tasks and different engineering controls, despite there being increased BLL across tasks. Additionally, three abatement projects in 2018-2020 in New York (Manhattan Subway Project, Yonkers Pump Station Wastewater Treatment Project, and Hastings-On-Hudson Bridge Project) also used different abatement methods for different projects. All three projects also exhibited workers having varied increased BLLs. Abrasive blasting, needle gunning, plasma cutting, lead tape removal, mobilization/demobilization, and vacuuming were the tasks performed at the projects. The needle gunning, plasma cutting, lead tape removal, and mobilization/demobilization had the lowest BLL while abrasive blasting and vacuuming had the highest BLL. A literature review of the four articles was performed and each article had unique conditions and different abatement methods, similar to the three projects having different conditions and abatement methods. The data from the articles were compared to the data in the three projects. Based on findings presented in Sen et al. (2002), Sokas et al. (1997), Levin et al. (1998), and Reynolds et al. (1999) and the results from three abatement projects, workers’ risk of exposure exists regardless of abatement method but can be better managed by understanding which abatement methods and engineering controls should be used as best practice.
- PM2.5-induced Cardiovascular Health Effects and Potential Therapeutic Mechanisms of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation: A Scoping Review(2022-12) Hunt, KirstinHunt, Kirstin Lynn. PM2.5-induced Cardiovascular Health Effects and Potential Therapeutic Mechanisms of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation: A Scoping Review (Under the direction of Dr. Jennifer Richmond-Bryant). Recent studies have found that long-term exposure to air pollution, especially particulate matter (PM), was associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The peer-reviewed literature has shown that short-term exposure to PM2.5 (PM < 2.5 μm) can cause adverse cardiovascular effects and mortality. The mechanisms by which PM2.5 can initiate adverse cardiovascular health effects are still being investigated, but evidence suggests that inflammation, oxidative stress, and modulation of the cardiac autonomic nervous system (ANS) play a prominent role in vascular and endothelial dysfunction. Dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (O3FAs), including fish oil, have been found to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. Growing scientific evidence suggests supplementation with O3FAs, including fish oils, could protect against the adverse effects of PM2.5. This scoping review aims to highlight the current scientific studies purporting that O3FA supplementation can mitigate the adverse effects of PM2.5. An initial search of PubMed and Web of Science was conducted on January 31, 2021, with no date or location restrictions. A constraint included only papers published in English. The author supplemented this by searching reference lists of articles and performing a grey literature search on Google Scholar. Eligibility criteria were defined by a Population Exposure Comparison Outcome (PECO) statement to develop the study question and to aid in the selection process. The PECO framework included populations of human, animal, and in vitro systems with exposures to PM, PM2.5, PM10-2.5, concentrated ambient PM, diesel particulate matter, and black carbon. Comparison populations were supplemented with O3FAs or fish oil, but not limited to combinations with other supplements. Outcomes included cardiovascular diseases, vascular effects, and endothelial function. Twelve studies were identified that met the eligibility criteria. Eleven of the 12 studies observed protective cardiovascular health benefits from supplementation with O3FAs after PM2.5 exposure, including reduced inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers. However, one study found that olive oil supplements improved endothelial function instead of fish oil. This review did not compare the studies' supplementation dosage of O3FAs or fish oil. Further research is needed to address the supplementation of fish oil to determine the optimum dosage for protection. This review suggests supplementation with O3FAs could be a cost-effective way to protect against cardiovascular injury due to PM2.5 exposure.
- Evaluating Temporal Trends of Ambient Air Quality in Charlotte, North Carolina as a Southeastern Boomtown(2022-12) Sundermeyer, ChellySUNDERMEYER, CHELLY LEE. Evaluating Temporal Trends of Ambient Air Quality in Charlotte, North Carolina as a Southeastern Boomtown. (Under the direction of Dr. Stephen Graham). Ambient air is the air breathed outdoors and can enter indoor environments unaltered. Poor air quality is responsible for adverse health effects and well-being. To protect and improve ambient air quality across the United States, the federal government establishes legislative requirements to control pollutants that contribute to poor air quality. The Clean Air Act requires the United States Environmental Protection Agency to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six criteria air pollutants that can be harmful to public health and the environment: carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter (PM2.5/PM10), and sulfur dioxide. Charlotte is a city in the southwest region of North Carolina and one of the fastest growing cities in the country. Charlotte has seen a 60% growth in population in the last decade. Charlotte is potentially facing air quality challenges from its growing population and economy. As in many large cities, Charlotte’s unhealthy air quality is driven by ozone and particulate matter from mobile and stationary emission sources. The construction of new inroads and the growth of nearby/regional supply and demand chains have pushed the area to serve as a significant east coast trucking and freight transportation hub. In this study, Charlotte was evaluated for patterns and trends in ambient air quality occurring over the past 40 years related to changes in population, emissions sources, and energy consumption. Ambient air concentration data for criteria gases, particulates, and lead were compiled to evaluate historical ambient air quality monitoring in Charlotte. County population estimates, state and county emission sources, and state energy consumption data were collected to evaluate relationships between ambient air concentrations and these variables. Fuel sources were shown to impact air quality in Charlotte. Fossil fuels are the top sources of total energy consumed in North Carolina. All petroleum, coal, ii and natural gas represent these fossil fuels. All petroleum is the major energy source contributor at an average over 748,031 BBtu annually. The top six petroleum energy sources are asphalt/road oil, distillate fuel oil, hydrocarbon gas liquids, kerosene, motor gasoline, and residual fuel oil. Motor gasoline is the top energy source consumed over 414,318 BBtu annually. The top emissions sources for most criteria air pollutants were motor gasoline and diesel. Charlotte carbon monoxide 8-hour and 1-hour daily maximum concentrations are substantially reduced in the past 20 years and remained below the NAAQS. Lead’s rolling three-month average concentrations were highest in 1982 at approximately 0.83 μg/m3, declined sharply, and remained negligible for the rest of the study. Nitrogen dioxide daily maximum 1-hour concentrations have remained below the 100 ppb primary NAAQS. Annual mean concentrations are below 53 ppb but, as of 2021, have a slight uptick. Ozone daily maximum 8-hour concentrations were well above 0.070 ppm from 1980-2012, dipping slightly in 2013 and, as of 2019, show an upward trend. PM2.5 short-term annual mean concentrations were above 12.0 μg/m3 from 1999-2007 and have declined. Daily maximum 24-hour concentrations have remained slightly below the NAAQS; however, as of 2020, appear to be trending upward. PM10 daily maximum 24-hour concentrations have remained below the NAAQS since 1999. Sulfur dioxide daily maximum 1-hour concentrations have remained below the NAAQS after 2006 and shows a downward trend. Charlotte continues to improve air quality by regulating industry through administering county, state, and federal regulatory programs and advising the community through education and special programs. Results presented here were based on population, emissions, and energy consumption datasets obtained from the county and state levels with ambient air quality monitors exclusive to the city. Population, emissions, and energy consumption results are assumed to temporally affect the city of Charlotte.
- Urban Agriculture: Evaluation and Assessment of Urban Farming and Food Production in Raleigh, N.C.(2022-11) Houck, ElizabethFood production has shaped the American landscape and the environment beginning with the early native populations and expanding in scale with the first settlers. Along with shelter, the most important necessity for sustaining life is a source of food and water. In the past, tribes and communities moved across the landscape in the search of food, whether it was to hunt with animal migration patterns or gather seasonal fruits, berries, and nuts. This type of forage enabled diversity of food in the diet and allowed food sources to be sustainable and accessible. As populations grew and families migrated to other territories, the demand for staple and livestock feeder crops, such as corn and wheat, created development of mono-culture cropland environments and in areas that were un-sustainable for reliable growth without large irrigation systems. These corporate food production operations replaced family-run farms. A quote from an urban gardener in Atlanta “Those who control the food, control you” places the reality of our current food production and distribution methods into question. Food shortages occur when natural weather conditions due to climate change factors affect the distribution, production, and human interventions of the supply chain. Limited market locations and increased prices reduce availability of healthy foods in communities. Food deserts and food refugees are the result when disturbance to food distribution chains and resource scarcity occur. There has been a widening gap between food supply and demand in developed and developing countries. The demand for food, energy and water has increased and they are strongly interlinked. This report will provide an overview of the benefits and limitations of urban farming technologies which provide food to communities in urban areas or areas with disproportionate access to food. The types of innovative urban food production methods will be compared including design considerations, community relationships, investment and infrastructure, location requirements for accessibility and potential environmental effects. The goal of urban farming is to make cities and communities more resilient and less dependent on outside resources for food. Evaluations of existing urban gardening projects in Raleigh, North Carolina, will be included in this report documenting community involvement, production, distribution and space availability and other successful community gardening projects. There should be an understanding of planning policies and opportunities in the community. Existing data from the impacts to food security, water management, biodiversity, economic and environment advantages for planning and investment in the community are to be documented annually for continued financial and community support. Important steps for the development of urban farming include gaining support from local businesses and governments that may provide incentives to help local economics, social systems, and communities with the unifying attributes of urban agricultural oriented projects. This assessment of innovative agriculture examples and designs may supply the guide to help urban planning and city leaders to understand the diverse goals for urban food production projects in the community.
- Charlotte Police and Fire Training Academy: potential perand polyfluorinated alkyl substances remedial alternatives(2022-07) Libbey, StephenLIBBEY, STEPHEN RICHARD. Charlotte Police and Fire Training Academy: potential perand polyfluorinated alkyl substances remedial alternatives (Under the direction of Dr. Jennifer Richmond-Bryant). Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) have been used since the 1940s in many industry products as surfactants and in consumer products as water and oil repellents. Due to their widespread use, PFAS have been detected in environmental compartments and humans. Human exposure to PFAS has been associated with a variety of diseases and cancers. Currently, regulatory groundwater standards only exist for a few select PFAS compounds. Cleanup of PFAS impacted sites can be an expensive and long-term process due to their persistence in the environment. Impacts of PFAS on soil and groundwater have been associated with historical use of aqueous film-forming firefighting foams (AFFF), which have been identified at a municipal fire training facility in Charlotte, North Carolina. Based on a literature review and an evaluation of site conditions, several potential emerging technologies were identified that can be deployed at the training facility to meet the site remediation strategy. Of the potential technologies, the preferred remediation alternatives include source area soil excavation and reagent adsorbent solution injection for the shallow groundwater aquifer and pump and treat technology for the bedrock groundwater aquifer. Due to several literature data gaps, assessment activities and cost estimates are needed to determine if the preferred treatment alternative is the most economically and technologically feasible remedial alternative for the site.
- A review of microgrids ability to enhance readiness for military and first responders(2022-06) Bunch, WendellBunch, Wendell. A review of microgrids ability to enhance readiness for military and first responders (Under the direction of Dr. Elizabeth Nichols) Microgrids are a relatively new and promising technology that will benefit the DoD community and first responders by providing reliable energy in times of disaster. Currently, minimal research exists highlighting best practices for this technology at both the micro and macro level for these specific industries. The majority of information on constructed microgrids in either of these organizations focus heavily on diesel generator based systems and research on additional microgrid formats exists only in simulations or are theoretical in nature. The most limiting factors for this research is the inadequate information on military microgrid specifications, military infrastructure, emergency equipment specification, and cost of the system. The purpose of this review is to compare microgrid implementation for disaster response forces and the military to conventional power and identify best practices to gain additional capabilities for these vulnerable populations. Many new technologies and simulated modeling are able to forecast the impact of these microgrids and their influence on future disaster response efforts. Design factors such as focusing on system resiliency will minimize down time during these events and mitigate any second and third order events from increasing the disaster intensity.
- Treatment of a Duke Energy Power Plant wastewater by Thermal Evaporation: a review(2022-05) Wilson, LeanneAbstract Wilson, Leanne. Master of Environmental Assessment. Treatment of a Duke Energy Power Plant wastewater by Thermal Evaporation: a review Water resources are an integral part of providing industries, especially electric generating facilities the ability to operate. A downside is the amount of wastewater that is produced. With the adoption of North Carolina's Clean Smokestack Act and National Air Quality standards on SO2 emission into the atmosphere, many fossil fueled plants have converted their facilities with FGD or Flue Gas Desulfurization systems in order to "scrub" the SO2 from their emission sources. Having to clean up one medium, the air, introduced new opportunities to create wastewater. Under the Clean Water Act, facilities that generate wastewater are responsible for adhering to the facility's National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System or NPDES permit. With the conversion to FGD, a Duke Energy facility installed the use of a Bioreactor system that uses heterotrophic bacteria to reduce pollutants in the wastewater. Problems arose with increased concentrations of metals, i.e., Selenium, Mercury, Boron, Thallium and Manganese that were not meeting the facility's NPDES limits. After a special order of consent was issued by NCDEQ and a 3rd party wastewater study conducted, the decision was made to seek new FGD treatment technologies by Duke Energy to comply with the NPDES limits of the receiving waterbody. The treatment that was selected was the Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) or Thermal Evaporating system. In the years following the commissioning of the ZLD, there has been significant improvements to the water quality and chemistry of the discharge coming from the plant into the receiving reservoir. All metals of concern decreased with Selenium at 94.81%, Mercury at 93.21%, Boron at 64.88%, Thallium at 50.43 % and Manganese at 68.79%.
